Preface              
         
          China is home to a multiplicity of religious beliefs, with the
          world's three major religions - Buddhism, Catholicism and Islamism -
          all having large congregations, organizations and activity venues in
          the country. Buddhism in China mainly includes Han Chinese language
          Buddhism, which spread into China in 2 B.C.; Tibetan language
          Buddhism, which spread into Tibet in the 7th century; and Pali
          language Buddhism, which spread into China in the 13th century.
          Tibetan Buddhism refers to Tibetan language Buddhism, and is also
          known as Lamaism.
         
          Tibetan Buddhism has exerted extensive and profound influence on the
          Tibetan race. Buddhism spread into Tibet in the 7th century, and
          gradually infiltrate Tibet's history, politics, economics, culture,
          exchanges and habits and customs to become the most extensively
          worshipped religion of Tibetans. Prolonged ethnic cultural exchanges
          also enabled Tibetan Buddhism to make its way into the Mongolian, Tu
          , Yugu, Luoba, Moinba, Naxi, Purmi and other ethnic minority
          nationalitites throughout China. Buddhism has long been widely
          worshipped in China's Tibet Autonomous Region, as well as Sichuan,
          Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai provinces, and the Xinjiang Uygur and
          Inner Mongolia autonomous regions. It has also made its way into
          Sikkim, Bhuttan, Nepal, the Mongolian People's Republic and Buryat
          in the Republic of Russia.
         
          More than 1,400 Tibetan monasteries and other religious venues were
          renovated and opened following the peaceful liberation of Tibet in
          1951. Chinese government and policies for religious freedom enable
          34,000 monks in various monasteries to freely study Buddhist sutras
          and hold various types of Buddhist activities in their respective
          monasteries. In addition, the broad masses of religious have set up
          shrines, Buddha halls and sutra recitation rooms in their homes, and
          undertake pilgrimages to sacred sites.


         Formation of Tibetan Buddhism
                     
          Books on the history of Tibetan Buddhism record the following legend
          of how Buddhism spread to Tibet: On one particular day in the 5th
          century, Lhathothori Nyantzan, forefather of the Tubo Kingdom, was
          resting on the summit of Yungbolhakang. He suddenly found several
          Buddhist treasures falling from the sky. While the Tubo King had no
          idea what they were for, a mysterious voice from the sky informed
          him that the 6th Tsampo (king) of the Tubo Kingdom would know the
          use of the objects.
         
          According to historical documents, these treasures were brought to
          Tibet by Indians Buddhists. Upon seeing that Tibetans had no idea of
          their significance, the Indian monks had no choice but to secret
          them in a safe place and return to india. The fact remains that
          Buddhism did spread into Tibet during the reign of Tubo King
          Songtsan Gambo in the 7th century.
         
          Songtsan Gambo did his best to establish friendly ties with
          neighboring countries in order to strengthen economic and cultural
          exchanges and learn from the advanced cultures of various races. In
          the process he married with Princess Khridzun of Nepal and Princess
          Wencheng of China's Tang Dynasty (618-907). Each princess journeyed
          to Tibet with a statue of Buddha, and once there set about building
          the Jokhang and Ramoge monasteries in Lhasa. Artisans accompanying
          the princess were involved in the construction of monasteries, and
          Buddhist monks in their tourages began translating Buddhist
          scriptures. Buddhism thus spread to Tibet from Nepal and Han areas.
         
          Tibet reeled under power struggle for more than half a century
          following the death of Songtsan Gambo. Buddhism failed to flourish
          until Tride Zhotsan, great grandson of Songtsan Gambo, finally took
          power. In 710, Tride Zhotsan asked for the hand of and eventually
          married Princess Jincheng of the Tang Dynasty. The new bride moved
          the statue of Buddha, which Princess Wencheng brought to Tibet, to
          the Jokhang Monastery. Meanwhile, she arranged monks accompanying
          her to the Tubo Kingdom to take in charge of the monastery and
          related religious activities. She engaged in a painstaking effort
          and finally succeeding in persuading the Tubo court to accept monks
          fleeing from Western Regions and build seven monasteries to house
          them. While the measures further boosted the development of Buddhism
          in Tibet, they nonetheless sparked discontent amongst ministers
          worshipping the Bon religion. The ministers left no stone unturned
          to obstruct the development of Buddhism, with to situation lasting
          until Trisong Detsan, the son of Tride Zhotsan, came to power.
         
          Trison Detsan relied on Buddhism to fight ministers who rallied
          behind the Bon religion. As part of the effort, he invited Zhibatsho
          and Padmasambhava, famous Indian monks, to build the Samye Monastery
          in 799. Seven noble children were later tonsured to the monastery,
          which became the first monastery in Tibetan Buddhist history to
          tonsure monks. The event thus pioneered the tonsure system of
          Tibetan Buddhism.
         
          In addition to inviting Indian monks to Tibet, Trisong Destan sent
          trusted emissaries to China's hinterland to invite monks to lecture
          in Tibet. Mahayana became one of the many Han monks who contributed
          to ensuring that Han Buddhism flourished in Tibet. Mahayana remained
          in Tibet for 11 years lecturing on Buddhism and completing nine
          books on Buddhist tenets.
         
          Tubo kings in ensuing dynasties did their utmost to promote Buddhism
          by building monasteries and commissioning the translation of
          Buddhist sutras. At the same time, they granted monks royal incomes
          and even encouraged them to become involved in government affairs in
          order to undermine ministers who supported the Bon religion. The
          policy spawned the deep hatred of said ministers, who eventually
          arranged for the assassination of Tritso Detsan in 842. The
          ministers threw their support behind Darma, the brother of Tritso
          Detsan, to become the new Tubo king. This was in turn followed by
          the large-scale suppression of Buddhism in the region.
         
          Shortly after assuming power, Darma set out to suppress Buddhism,
          but was soon assassinated by Tibetan Buddhists, and war erupted
          between the different power factions. Slaves, who were thrown into
          the abyss of misery, rose to revolt. Tibet was torn apart by various
          forces. The "diffusion of Buddhism'' was thus halted.
         
          The early 10th century witnessed the entry of a feudal society in
          tibet, with each of the Tubo ministers occupying a part of the
          kingdom and becoming feudal powers in their respective localities.
          They proceeded to promote Buddhism in order to strengthen their own
          rule. Buddhism was thus revived in Tibet. In terms of form and
          content, however, Buddhism rising in Tibet during tit particular
          period was worlds apart from Tubo Buddhism. The 300-odd years of
          struggle between Buddhism and the Bon religion resulted in each
          absorbing the strong points of the other. Buddhism became
          increasingly Tibetanized as the region entered the feudal stage.
          Tibetan Buddhism emerged and entered a stage of rapid development.
         

     
          Buddhist Sects and Characteristics          
         
          Numerous Buddhist Acts emerged after the mid-11th century, including
          the Nyingma, Gatang, Sagya, Gagyu, Zhigyed, Gyoyul, Gyonang, Kodrag
          and Xalhu sects. The latter five were rather weak owing to the lack
          of political support. They were thus forced to join force or were
          otherwise annexed by other sects, and as individual entities fell
          into the oblivion of the long flow of history. The following five
          sects enjoyed impressive popularity:
         
          Nyingma Sect. The sect, founded in the 11th century, is also known
          as the Red Sect and is the oldest sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The sect
          paid great attention to absorbing the fine points of the Bon
          religion and, at the same time, did its best to locate Buddhist
          sutras secreted away when Darma moved to suppress Buddhism. Based on
          its practice of Buddhism deeply rooted in the Tubo Kingdom of the
          8th century, the sect called itself Nyingma, a word meaning ancient
          and old in the Tibetan language. Monks of the Nyingma Sect wore red
          hats, hence the name the Red Sect. The Red Sect mainly advocates the
          study of Tantrism. Its theory was strongly influenced by Han Chine
          language Buddhism, and is quite similar with the theory of Ch'an
          School of Buddhism in China's hinterland. Today, the Red Sect is not
          only active in Tibetaninhabited areas in Ghina, but also in India,
          Bhuttan, Nepal, Belgium, Greece and France, as well as in the Unite
          States.
         
          Gatang Sect. The Gatang Sect, founded in 1056, primarily advocated
          the study of Exoteric teachings, with later emphasis on Tantrism. In
          the Tibetan language, Ga refers to the teachings of Buddha, with
          tang meaning instruction. The combination Gatang thus refers to
          advising people to accept Buddhism based on the teachings of Buddha.
          Its doctrines were promoted far and wide and thus exerted great
          influence on various Tibetan Buddhist sects. However, along with the
          rise of the Gelug Sect in the 15th century, the Gatang Sect
          dissolved with its monks and monasteries merging with the former.
         
          Sagya Sect. Sagya means "white land'' in the Tibetan language. The
          Sagya Sect, founded in 1703, derived its name from the fact that the
          Sagya Monastery, the sect's most important monastery, is grayish
          white in color. Enclosures in the sect's monasteries are painted
          with red, white and black stripes, which respectively symbolize the
          Wisdom Buddha, the Goddess of Mercy and the Diamond Hand Buddha.
          Hence, the sect is also known as the Stripe Sect. The ever
          increasing influence of the sect and the expansion of feudal forces
          throughout its formation led to the increasing fame of the "five
          Sagya Sect Forefathers''. The Fourth Forefather Sapan Gonggar
          Gyaincain was summoned to Liangzhou in 1247 by the Yuan Dynasty
          (1271-1368) ruler to dialup matters concerning Tibet pledging
          allegiance to the Yuan Dynasty. This was followed by Sapan bringing
          various feudal forces in Tibet under control of the Mongols.
          Following the death of Sapan, Pagan, the Fifth Forefather of the
          Sagya Sect, emerged as a high-ranking official in the Yuan court.
          Pagba Was granted honorary titles such as "State Tutor", ''Imperial
          Tutor'' and ''Great Treasure Prince of Dharma.'' Thereafter, the
          Sagya Sect emerged as the Yuan Dynasty representative in Tibet.
          During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) , Gonggar Zhaxi, an eminent monk
          with the Sagya Sect, journeyed to Nanjing, capital of the Ming
          Dynasty, to pay homage to Emperor Yongle. Gongar was granted an
          honorary title as the "Mahayana Prince of Dharma'', one of the three
          Princes of Dharma.
         
          Gagyu Sect. The Gagyu Sect, founded in the 11th century, stresses
          the study of Tantrism and advocates that Tantrist tenets be passed
          down orally from one generation to another. Hence the name Gagyu,
          which in the Tibetan language means "passing down orally.'' Marba
          and Milha Riba, the founders of the Gagyu Sect, wore white monk
          robes when practicing Buddhism , leading to the name White Sect. In
          the early years, the White Sect was divided into the Xangba Gagyu
          which declined in the 14th and to 15th centuries, and the Tabo
          Gagyu. The Tabo Gagyu was powerful and its branch sects were either
          in power in their respective localities or otherwise dominant
          amongst feudal forces.
         
          Gelug Sect. The Gelug Sect, founded in 1409, was the most famous
          Buddhist sect in Tibetan history dating to the 15th century. The
          sect was founded during the reform of Tibetan Buddhism initiated by
          Zongkapa. Zongkapa himself was born at a time when the Pagmo Zhuba
          replaced the Sagya Regime in power. At that time, upper-class monks
          involved in political and economic power struggle led a decadent
          life, and rapidly lost popularity with society. Faced with this
          situation, Zongkapa called for efforts to follow Buddhist tenets. He
          proceeded to undertake lecture tours in many areas and wrote books
          accusing decadent monks of failing to abide by Buddhist tenets.
          Zongkapa spared no effort to press ahead with Buddhist reform. For
          example, in the first month of 1409 according to Tibetan calendar,
          Zongkapa initiated the Grand Summons Ceremony in Lhasa's Jokhang
          Monastery. The ceremony remains in practice even today. This effort
          was closely followed by the construction of the famous Gandain
          Monastery and the founding of the Gelug Sect which was famous for
          its strict adherence to commandments. The Tibetan language meaning
          of Gelug is "commandments''. Zongkapa and his followers wore yellow
          hats, and thus the Gelug Sect is also known as the Yellow Sect.
          Since its founding, the Yellow Sect has built the Zhaibung, Sera,
          Tashilhungpo, Tar and Labrang monasteries, which join the Gandain
          Monastery as the six major monasteries of the Gelug Sect. The Yellow
          Sect is also known for formation of the two largest Living Buddha
          reincarnation systems - the Dalai and Bainqen systems.
         
         
          The Reincarnation of the Living Buddhas
                     
          The reincarnation system for the Living Buddhas is the main point
          distinguishing tibetan Buddhism from other forms of Buddhism. What
          led to the introduction of the system?
         
          The term Living Buddha emerged in the early Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368)
          when Emperor Kublai Khan honored Pagba, head of the Sagya Sect, by
          granting him the title "Buddha of the Western Paradise.''
          Thereafter, eminent Tibetan monks we distinguished themselves in the
          practice of Buddhism were referred to as ''Living Buddhas.''
          However, the term Living Buddha was not recognized as a special
          title for a monk who became the successor of the deceaed leader of a
          monastery until the eventual introduction of the Living Buddha
          reincarnation system.
         
          In 1252 , Kublai Khan granted an audience to Pagba and Garma Pakshi,
          an eminent monk with the Garma Gagyu Sect. Garma Pakshi, however,
          sought the patronage of Monge Khan who proceeded to bestow him a
          gold-rimmed black hat and a golden seal of authority. Prior to his
          death in 1283, Garma Paksli penned a will to ensure the established
          interests of his sect. The will advised his disciples to locate a
          boy to inherit the black hat, with the instruction based on the
          premise that Buddhist idelogy is eternal, and a Buddha would be
          reincarnated to complete the missions he had initiated. Garma
          Pakshi's disciples acted in accordance with the will and located the
          reincarnated soul boy of their master. The event marked the
          introduction of the Living Buddha reincarnation system for the
          Black-Hat Line of Tibetan Buddhism. During the Ming Dynasty
          (1368-1644), Emperor Yongle honored Black-Hat Living Buddha Garmaba
          as the ''Great Treasure Prince of Dharma,'' the first of the three
          "Princes of Dharma.'' The Living Buddha reincarnation system remains
          in operation today. On September 27, 1992, the Curpu Monastery in
          Doilungdeqen County, Lhasa, was the site of a grand ceremony marking
          the enthronement of the 16th Living Buddha Garmaba. The event marked
          a new page in th history of the Garma Gagye Sect.
         
          Various sects of Tibetan Buddhism reacted to the introduction of the
          Living Buddha reincarnation system by creating numerous similar
          systems. During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) reign of Emperor
          Qianlong alone, 148 Grand Living Buddhas registered for
          reincarnation with the Board for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs, with
          the number of registrants rising to 160 by the end of the dynasty.
          The most influential reincarnation systems have since been the Dalai
          and Bainqen Lama systems.
         
          The reincarnation system for the Dalai Lama was introduced in the
          16th century. In the early years of the Qing Dynasty, the 5th Dalai
          Lama journeyed to Beiing to pay homage to Emperor Shunzhi. The Qing
          emperor granted him the honorific title of "the Dalai Lama, Overseer
          of the Buddhist Faith on Earth Under the Great Benevolent
          Self-subsisting Buddha of the Western Paradise.'' The title Dalai
          Lama was thus established and is still in up today. The current
          Dalai Lama was enthroned in the Potala Palace on February 22, 1940,
          during a ceremony presided over by Wu Zhongxin, minister of the
          Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs of the nationalist
          government of the Republic of China (1911-49). The nationalist
          government ordered that he be confirmed as the reincarnated soul boy
          of the 13th Dalai Lama without the requirement to carrying the
          established method of drawing lot from the golden urn and that he
          instead directly succeed as the 14th Dalai Lama.
         
          The reincarnatin system for the Bainqen Lama was introduced in 1713
          when the 5th Bainqen was granted the honorific title as "Bainqen
          Erdeni," with Erdeni meaning "great treasure" in Manchu. The 9th
          Bainqen Erdeni and the 13th Dalai Lama were at odds during the
          period of the Republic of China, with the 9th Bainqen Erdeni
          departing for China's hinterland. He later passed away in Qinghai
          Province. The Tashilhungpo Monastery, the resident monastery for the
          Bainqen Erdeni, located a boy by the name of Gongbo Cidain. All
          signs pointed to the fact that he was indeed the reincarnated soul
          boy of the 9th Bainqen Erdeni. Li Zongren, the acting president of
          the Republic of China, issued a special order instructing that the
          boy "be excuses from the lot-drawing method and given the special
          permission to succeed as the 10th Bainqen Erdeni." The grand
          enthronment ceremony held in the Tar Monastery on August 10, 1949,
          was presided over by Guan Jieyu, minister of the Commission for
          Mongolian and Tibean Affairs of the nationalist government of the
          Republic of China.
         
          The Gelug Sect of Tibetan Buddhism came to power in Tibet in the
          17th century and the Living Buddha reincarnation system became a
          bone of contention with the upper class in Tibet. In 1793, as part
          of an effort to turn the tide by overcoming drawbacks characteristic
          of soul boys nominated from the same tribes, the Qing government
          promulgated the 29-Article Ordinance for the More Efficient
          Governing of Tibet. Article one of the Ordinance stipulates: In
          order to ensure the Yellow Sect continues to flourish, the Grand
          Emperor bestows it with a golden urn and ivory slips for use in
          confirming the reincarnated soul boy of a deceased Living Buddha.
          For this purpose, four major Buddhist Guardians will be summoned;
          the name's of candidates, as well as their birth years, will be
          written on the ivory slips in the three languages - Manchu, Han
          chinese and Tibetan; the ivory slips will be placed into the golden
          urn and learned Living Buddhas will pray for seven days before
          various Hotogtu Living Buddhas and High Commisioners stationed in
          Tibet by the Central Government officially confirm the reincarnated
          soul boy by drawing a lot from the golden urn in front of the statue
          of Sakyamuni in the Jokhang Monastery.
         
          The system of drawing lot from the golden urn thus perfected the
          Living Buddha reincarnation system of Tibetan Buddhism. Following
          the lot-drawing ceremony, the High Commissioners and leaders of the
          soul boy search group were required to report the result to the
          Central Government. The enthronement ceremony was held following the
          approval of the Central Government.
         
          The Qing court commissioned artisans to create two golden urns. One
          go1den urn, used to confirm reincarnations of the Dalai Lama and the
          Bainqen Erdeni, is currently housed in the Potala Palace in Lhasa.
          The other, used to confirm the reincarnations of
         
          Mongolian and Tibetan Grand Living Buddhas and hotogtu Living
          Buddhas, is housed in the Yonghegong Lamasery in Beijing.